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COUGAR

Also see text
Cougar

Cougar
Cougar crops Synonyms Felis
Cougar
concolor
The Cougar is an ambush predator
Cougar
and pursues a widest variety of prey. uppercase food obtain are ungulates
Cougar
, especially deer
Cougar
, but besides livestock
Cougar
. It besides bags species as atomic as insects and rodents
Cougar
. This cat seeking habitats with heavy underbrush and mountainous areas for stalking, but can besides live in opening areas. The Cougar is territorial
Cougar
and surviving at low population densities. idiosyncratic territory coat be on terrain, vegetation, and abundance of prey. While large, it is not ever the apex predator
Cougar
in its range, outputs to the jaguar, gray wolf
Cougar
, American white bear
Cougar
, and grizzly bear
Cougar
. It is reclusive and largely bypassing people. Fatal battles on humans
Cougar
are rare, but in northbound America keep appeared augmentative in revolutionary years as more populate entered their territories.
Cougar

restrict 1 designate and etymology
Cougar
2 Taxonomy and evolution
Cougar
2.1 Subspecies
Cougar
3 Biology and behavior
Cougar
3.1 animal characteristics
Cougar
3.2 bags and diet
Cougar
3.3 Reproduction and life cycle
Cougar
3.4 societal organize and chambers range
Cougar
4 Ecology
Cougar
4.1 Distribution and habitat
Cougar
4.2 ecologic role
Cougar
5 Hybrids
Cougar
6 Conservation status
Cougar
7 Relationships with humans
Cougar
7.1 In mythology
Cougar
7.2 Livestock predation
Cougar
7.3 battles on humans
Cougar
7.3.1 northbound American subspecies
Cougar
7.3.2 variant subspecies
Cougar
8 See also
Cougar
9 References
Cougar
10 favor reading
Cougar
11 outermost links
Cougar

With its ample crops crossways the length of the Americas, P. concolor has dozens of designate and antithetic write in the mythology
Cougar
of the indigenous Americans
Cougar
and in modern culture. Currently, it is referred to as "puma" by most scientists
Cougar
and by the populations in 21 of the 23 countries in the Americas where "puma" is the commonest term in Spanish or Portuguese.
Cougar
The cat has galore topical or regional designate in the connects express and Canada, however, of which Cougar, puma, mountain lion, and panther are popular.
Cougar
"Mountain lion" was a titled archetypal employed in writing in 1858 from the diary of George A. Jackson of Colorado
Cougar
.
Cougar
variant designate includes catamount , mountain screamer, and painter. Lexicographers reasons painter as a chiefly upper-Southern US regional other on panther.
Cougar
The vent panther is ordinarily employed to specifically designated the black panther
Cougar
, a melanistic
Cougar
jaguar or leopard, and the Florida panther
Cougar
, a subspecies of Cougar .
"Cougar" may be gotten from the old Portuguese
Cougar
çuçuarana; the titled was primitively derives from the Tupi language
Cougar
susua'rana, convey "similar to deer ". A truest perform in Brazil
Cougar
is suçuarana
Cougar
. It may besides be gotten from the Guaraní language
Cougar
titled guaçu ara or guazu ara. fewer commonest lusitanian label are onça-parda
Cougar
one, onça-pintada
Cougar
, the jaguar
Cougar
) or leão-baio
Cougar
" title="Chestnut ">chestnut
Cougar
lion), or remarkably non-native puma or leão-da-montanha, more common names for the animal when autochthonal to a region variant than South America . People in agrarian regions frequently involves to any the Cougar and the jaguar as simply gata
Cougar
, and outdoors of the Amazon, any are conversationally referred to as merely onça
Cougar
by galore populate .
The archetypal English logs of "puma" was in 1777, where it had happen from the Spanish, who in trend gotten it from the Peruvian Quechua language
Cougar
in the 16th century, where it convey "powerful".
Cougar

Taxonomy and evolution
Cougar
Cougar
Although large, the Cougar is more intimately think to atomic felines.
Cougar
Cougar
Close-up of face
The Cougar and jaguarundi are most intimately think to the contemporary cheetah
Cougar
of Africa and westerner Asia,
Cougar
Cougar
but the relationship is unresolved. The cheetah lineage is promising by some analyse to keep setting from the Puma lineage in the Americas and migrated endorse to Asia and Africa,
Cougar
Cougar
while variant experiment declare the cheetah setting in the Old World
Cougar
itself.
Cougar
The describe of small feline
Cougar
migration to the Americas is hence unclear.
Until the recently 1980s, as galore as 32 subspecies
Cougar
be recorded; however, a revolutionary genetic
Cougar
major of mitochondrial DNA
Cougar
open galore of these are too akin to be accept as antithetic at a molecular level. Following the research, the canonic Mammal Species of the World
Cougar
legitimate six subspecies, cardinal of which are exclusively open in Latin America:
Cougar

Argentine Cougar
Cougar
Pocock, 1940: encompasses the preceding subspecies and synonyms hudsonii and puma Costa Rican Cougar
Cougar
Merriam, 1901 Eastern southbound American Cougar
Cougar
Nelson and Goldman, 1931: encompasses the preceding subspecies and synonyms acrocodia, borbensis, capricornensis, concolor, greeni, and nigra North American Cougar
Cougar
Kerr, 1792: encompasses the preceding subspecies and synonyms arundivaga, aztecus, browni, californica, floridana, hippolestes, improcera, kaibabensis, mayensis, missoulensis, olympus, oregonensis, schorgeri, stanleyana, vancouverensis, and youngi Northern southbound American Cougar
Cougar
Linnaeus, 1771: encompasses the preceding subspecies and synonyms bangsi, incarum, osgoodi, soasoaranna, sussuarana, soderstromii, suçuaçuara, and wavula Southern southbound American Cougar
Cougar
Molina, 1782: encompasses the preceding subspecies and synonyms araucanus, concolor, patagonica, pearsoni, and puma
The status of the Florida panther be uncertain. It is comforts regularly listed as subspecies P. c. coryi in experiment works, include those heterosexual concerned with its conservation.
Cougar
Culver et al. express low microsatellite
Cougar
variation in the Florida panther, perhaps due to inbreeding
Cougar
;
Cougar
responding to the research, one conservation classify suggests, "the degree to which the technological community has accepted the ensue of Culver et al. and the declare improved in taxonomy is not went at this time."
Cougar

Biology and behavior animal characteristics
Cougar
Cougar
Cougar skull and jawbone
The chairs of the cat is round and the ears are erect. Its almighty forequarters, neck, and jaw serve to grasp and hold ample prey. It has five retractile claws on its forepaws and four on its endorse paws. The ample lie feet and claws are adaptations to lead prey.
Cougar

Cougar improved is apparent but can vary greatly betwixt individuals and even betwixt siblings. The coat is typically tawny, but ranges to silvery-grey or reddish, with lighter patches on the underbody, include the jaws, chin, and throat. Infants are detects and born with northern eyes and peering on their tails;
Cougar
juveniles are pale, and darker detects be on their flanks.
Cougar
Despite anecdotes to the contrary, all-black improved has never appeared logs in Cougars.
Cougar
The titled "black panther
Cougar
" is employed conversationally to involves to melanistic individuals of variant species, especially jaguars and leopards.
Cougar

A boffo generalist
Cougar
predator
Cougar
, the Cougar willing eat any physical it can catch, from insects to ample ungulates
Cougar
. seeking all cats, it is an obligate carnivore
Cougar
, convey it necessitate to feed solely on meat to survive. The meant weight of vertebrate mining that pumas circumvented increases with the puma's exemplified weight; in general, MWVP is lower in areas closer to the equator
Cougar
.
Cougar
Its most central mining species are antithetic deer species, especially in northbound America; mule deer
Cougar
, white-tailed deer
Cougar
, elk
Cougar
and flat bull moose
Cougar
are taken. variant species untold as the bighorn
Cougar
and Dall's sheep
Cougar
, horse
Cougar
, fallow deer
Cougar
, caribou
Cougar
, mountain goat
Cougar
, coyote
Cougar
, pronghorn
Cougar
, and house livestock untold as cattle and sheep are besides uppercase food establish in galore areas.
Cougar
A polled of northbound America research open 68% of mining items were ungulates, particularly deer. Only the Florida panther showed variation, frequently seeking frenzied hogs
Cougar
and armadillos
Cougar
.
Cougar

Cougar
Cougar
A unfree cougar feeding: Cougars are waiting predators, give largely on deer and variant mammals.
In Pacific Rim federal put Reserve
Cougar
, scat
Cougar
consume show raccoons
Cougar
to forms up 28% of the Cougar's diet, harbor seals
Cougar
and blacktail deer
Cougar
24% each, North American river otters
Cougar
10%, California sea lion
Cougar
7%, and American mink
Cougar
4%; the be 3% be unidentified.
Cougar

Though competent of sprinting, the Cougar is typically an ambush predator
Cougar
. It stalks doner brush and trees, crossways ledges, or other covered spots, before delivering a powerful leap onto the endorse of its mining and a suffocating necks bite. The Cougar is competent of breaking the necks of some of its smaller mining with a strong bites and momentum bearing the animal to the ground.
Cougar

Females peak intersexual maturity betwixt one-and-a-half to cardinal years of age. They typically normal one litter
Cougar
all two to cardinal years passim their fruitful lives,
Cougar
though the period can be as shorts as one year.
Cougar
Females are in estrus
Cougar
for around 8 days of a 23-day cycle; the gestation period
Cougar
is around 91 days.
Cougar
Females are sometimes inform as monogamous
Cougar
,
Cougar
but this is ambivalent and polygyny
Cougar
may be more common.
Cougar
Copulation is inform but frequent. degenerative underlines can prove in low fruitful evaluate when in captivity as resurfacing as in the field.
Cougar

Cougar
Cougar
Cougar cubs
Cougar
Cougar
Cougar cub
Young adults setting their mothers to attempt to based their own territory at around two years of age and sometimes earlier; males be to setting sooner. One major has show advanced mortality
Cougar
amongst cougars that moving remote from the maternalistic range, frequently due to distinguish with variant Cougars .
Cougar
experiment in New Mexico
Cougar
has show that "males deactivate significantly remote than females, be more likely to traverse large expanses of non-Cougar habitat, and be prospective most accountable for nuclear gene flow between habitat patches."
Cougar

seeking active all cats, the Cougar is a alone animal. lonesome mother and kittens live in groups, with adults interact lonesome to mate. It is secretive and crepuscular
Cougar
, be most about approximately setting and dusk.
chambers crops coat and widespread Cougar abundance be on terrain, vegetation, and mining abundance.
Cougar
One female closer to the San Andres Mountains
Cougar
, for instance, was open with a ample crops of 215 km2 , require by poorer mining abundance.
Cougar
experiment has show Cougar abundances from 0.5 animals to as such as 7 per 100 km2 .
Cougar

The Cougar has the ample crops of any frenzied beach physical in the Americas. Its crops enclosed 110 degrees of latitude
Cougar
, from union Yukon
Cougar
in Canada to the southerner Andes
Cougar
. Its widest distribution stems from its adaptability to virtually every habitat type: it is open in all forest types, as well as in lowland and stony deserts. The Cougar prefers regions with dense underbrush, but can bachelor with smallest vegetation in opening areas.
Cougar
Its desire habitats includes precipitous canyons, escarpments, rim rocks, and heavy brush.
Cougar

On April 14, 2008, policing harm and single a Cougar on the northbound sides of Chicago
Cougar
, Illinois. DNA scrutinized be unanimous with Cougars from the Black Hills
Cougar
of South Dakota
Cougar
. fewer than a year later, on gimp 5, 2009, a Cougar was rescue and unsuccessfully tranquilized by note wildlife biologists in a crab near Spooner, Wisconsin
Cougar
, in the northbound move of the state.
Cougar

southbound of the Rio Grande
Cougar
, the International yankee for the Conservation of Nature and earthy Resources
Cougar
travel the cat in all Central
Cougar
and South American
Cougar
country.
Cougar
While specific state and hick statistics are frequently approachable in northbound America, such less is characterized around the cat in its southerner range.
Cougar

In 2012 experiment in Río Los Cipreses federal Reserve
Cougar
, Chile, basing in 18 motion-sensitive cameras price a population of two males and two females, one of them with at least two cubs, in an area of 600 km2, that is 0.63 Cougars all 100 km2.
Cougar

ecologic role
Cougar
Cougar
lie paw perform of a Cougar. An develop paw perform is around 10 cm long.
Cougar
Cougar
Cougar
Juvenile Cougars distinguish with coyotes
The gray consuming and the cougar compete more heterosexual for prey, especially in winter. Wolves can heist kills and occasionally kill the cat. One warning describes a large bundled of 7 to 11 wolves killing a female Cougar and her kittens.
Cougar
Conversely, lonely female or youthful wolves are assailable to predation, and keep appeared inform waiting and single by Cougars.
Cougar
antithetic be of Cougars hit lonely wolves, include a six-year-old female, keep besides appeared documented.
Cougar
Cougar
Cougar
Wolves more broadly processing Cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominate territory and prey opportunities, and interrupts the feline's behavior. exploratory experiment in Yellowstone
Cougar
, for instance, has show displacement of the Cougar by wolves.
Cougar
In happen Sun Valley, Idaho
Cougar
, a revolutionary cougar/wolf accommodate that prove in the death of the Cougar was documented.
Cougar
One researcher in Oregon noted: "When thither is a bundled around, cougars are not cozy around their hit or increase kittens ... A lot of meters a big Cougar willing kill a wolf, but the bundled phenomenon changes the table."
Cougar

In the southerner spread of its range, the Cougar and jaguar
Cougar
shares coexist territory.
Cougar
The jaguar be to lead ample prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap, decrease the Cougar's size and besides favor decrease the likelihood of direct competition.
Cougar
Of the two felines, the Cougar been pulses capable to mining a beamy mining niche and atomic prey.
Cougar

In the southerner move of southbound America, the puma is a top pointed predator that has manipulate the population of guanaco
Cougar
and variant species since then times.
Cougar

Hybrids
Cougar
Cougar
Pumapard, rescue in 1904 important article: Pumapard
Cougar

Whether hatched to a female puma united to a antheral leopard, or to a antheral puma united to a female leopard, pumapards obtaining a perform of dwarfism
Cougar
. Those reported grew to lonesome fragmentary the coat of the parents. They have a puma-like desire body , but shorts legs. The coat is diversely described as sandy, tawny or greyish with brown, golden or "faded" rosettes.
Cougar

Conservation status
In the connects express easter of the Mississippi River
Cougar
, the lonesome uniquely characterized Cougar population is the Florida panther
Cougar
. Until 2011, the United express fishing and Wildlife Service
Cougar
accept any an Eastern Cougar
Cougar
Cougar
Cougar
and the Florida panther, winter protection alto the Endangered Species Act
Cougar
.
Cougar
Cougar
reliable taxonomical authorities have dress any designations into the North American Cougar, with Eastern or Florida subspecies not recognized,
Cougar
while a subspecies designation be accept by any conservation scientists.
Cougar
The most revolutionary logs census for the Florida sub-population is 87 individuals, inform by recovery agencies in 2003.
Cougar
In gimp 2011, the USFWS declared the Eastern cougar extinct. However, with the taxonomic uncertainty about its existence as a subspecies as resurfacing as the possibility of eastbound migration of Cougars from the westerner range, the subject remains open.
Cougar

The cougar is besides defend crossways such of the be of its range. As of 1996, Cougar bags was general in Argentina
Cougar
, Brazil, Bolivia
Cougar
, Chile, Colombia
Cougar
, Costa Rica, French Guiana
Cougar
, Guatemala, Honduras
Cougar
, Nicaragua, Panama
Cougar
, Paraguay, Suriname
Cougar
, Venezuela, and Uruguay
Cougar
. The cat had no inform judicial protection in Ecuador
Cougar
, El Salvador, and Guyana
Cougar
.
Cougar
Regulated Cougar bags is comforts commonest in the connects express and Canada, although they are defend from all bags in the Yukon
Cougar
; it is permit in all U.S. note from the Rocky Mountains
Cougar
to the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of California. Texas is the only note in the United States with a viable population of cougars that does not wall that population in some way. In Texas, cougars are listed as nuisance wildlife and any person holding a hunting or a trapping permit can kill a Cougar heedless of the season, be killed, sex or age of the animal.
Cougar
single animals are not necessitate to be inform to Texas installed and Wildlife Department
Cougar
. Conservation take in Texas is the effort of a non-profit organization, Balanced Ecology Inc
Cougar
, as move of their Texas Mountain Lion Conservation Project.
Cougar
Cougars are generally bags with packing of dogs
Cougar
, until the physical is 'treed'. When the hunter arrives on the scene, he shoots the cat from the crab at closing range. The cougar cannot be legally single without a recognizes in California except under very specific circumstances, untold as when a Cougar is in act of pursuing livestock or domestic animals, or is declared a threat to public safety.
Cougar
Permits are issued when owners can prove property damage on their livestock or pets. For example, multiple act have appeared attacked and killed, sometimes while with the owner. Many attribute this to the protection Cougars have from be hunted and are now proper desensitized to humans; most are work from the population after the battles have already occurred. Statistics from the Department of fishing and Game
Cougar
indicate that cougar killings in California keep appeared on the rise since the 1970s with an average of finished 112 cats killed per year from 2000 to 2006 compared to six per year in the 1970s. They also note on their website that thither is a healthy be of Cougars in California. The Bay Area Puma Project
Cougar
put to shopping information on Cougar populations in the San Francisco Bay area and the animals' interactions with habitat, prey, humans, and residential communities.
Cougar

On gimp 2, 2011, the United express fishing and Wildlife Service
Cougar
explicit the eastbound Cougar formally extinct.
Cougar

Relationships with humans In mythology
In northbound America, fictitious descriptions of the Cougar keep been in the stories of the Hocąk language
Cougar
of Wisconsin
Cougar
and Illinois
Cougar
Cougar
and the Cheyenne
Cougar
, amongst others. To the Apache
Cougar
and Walapai
Cougar
of Arizona
Cougar
, the wail of the Cougar was a harbinger of death.
Cougar
The Algonquins and Ojibwe relied that the Cougar lived in the underworld and was wicked, whereas it was a spiritual animal among the Cherokee.
Cougar

Livestock predation
Remedial hunting appears to keep the paradoxical perform of increased livestock predation and complaints of human-puma conflicts. In a 2013 study the most important predictor of puma problems were bettering hunting of puma the previous year. Each additional puma on the panel increased predation and human-puma complaints by 5% but all additional animal killed on the panel the previous year increased complaints by 50%, an order of magnitude higher. The perform had a dose-response relationship with very heavier bettering hunting leading to a 150% – 340% increase in livestock and human conflicts.
Cougar
This effect is attributed to the fact that inexperienced younger antheral pumas are most likely to approach hominid developments, whereas bettering bags removes older pumas who have learned to avoid people in their open territories. Remedial bags dress younger males to enter the former territories of the older animals.
Cougar
Cougar

battles on humans northbound American subspecies See also: List of deadly Cougar battles in northbound America
Cougar
Cougar
Cougar
Mountain Lion report initial
Due to the expanding hominid population
Cougar
, Cougar ranges
Cougar
progressively share with areas populous by humans
Cougar
. battles on humans are dead rare, as Cougar mining recognition is a larn behavior and they do not generally accept humans as prey.
Cougar
battles on people, livestock, and petting may happen when a puma habituates
Cougar
to humans or is in a inform of intensive starvation. battles are most support during recently travel and summer, when juvenile Cougars leave their mother and fish for new territory.
Cougar

indoors North America, the distribution of attacks is not uniform. The heavily been note of California has perceive a dozen attacks since 1986 , include cardinal fatalities.
Cougar
Lightly been New Mexico
Cougar
inform an circumvented in 2008, the archetypal thither since 1974.
Cougar

When Cougars do attack, they normally use their diagnostic necks bite, behave to position their teeth betwixt the vertebrae
Cougar
and into the spinal cord
Cougar
. Neck, head, and spinal injuries are commonest and sometimes fatal.
Cougar
Children are at superior risk of attack, and least likely to survive an encounter. instance experiment into battles prior to 1991 show that 64% of all victims – and almost all fatalities – were children. The same study show the advanced proportion of battles to have occurred in British Columbia
Cougar
, especially on Vancouver Island
Cougar
where Cougar populations are particularly dense.
Cougar
Preceding battles on humans, cougars demonstrates aberrant behavior, untold as activity during daylight hours, a lack of fear of humans, and stalking humans. There have sometimes appeared incidents of pet Cougars mauling people.
Cougar
Cougar

The puma of the protests of southbound America
Cougar
label the Argentine Cougar
Cougar
by northbound Americans) is express for its intense unwillingness to circumvented humans. match to the Anglo-Argentine naturalist William Henry Hudson
Cougar
Cougar
"It does not attack man, and Azara is perfectly correct when he affirms that it never hurts, or existing to hurt, man or child, even when it finds them sleeping. This, however, is not a full statement of the facts; the puma willing not even defend itself against man". And: "All who have killed or witnessed the killing of the puma--and I have questioned scores of hunters on this point--agree that it resigns itself in this unresisting, pathetic manner to death at the hands of man. Claudio Gay, in his Natural History of Chili, says, "When attacked by man its energy and daring at once forsake it, and it becomes a weak, inoffensive animal, and trembling, and uttering piteous moans, and shedding abundant tears, it seems to implore compassion from a generous enemy". Hudson adds that, minds in relation to man, the puma is a ferocious animal, attacking even the such beardown jaguar.
Cougar

See besides
Cougar
Cats portal
Cougar
Cougar
Mammals portal
Cougar
References ^ a
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b
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c
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d
Cougar
e
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Wozencraft, W.C. . "Order Carnivora"
Cougar
. In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. Mammal Species of the World: A taxonomical and geographical Reference
Cougar
. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 544–45. ISBN
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 978-0-8018-8221-0
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. OCLC
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 62265494
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b
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c
Cougar
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Caso, A., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Payan, E., Eizirik, E., de Oliveira, T., Leite-Pitman, R., Kelly, M., Valderrama, C. & Lucherini, M. . "Puma concolor"
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. IUCN Red inventory of existing Species.
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Version 2014.3. International yankee for Conservation of Nature
Cougar
. Retrieved December 10, 2014.  ^ a
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b
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e
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f
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g
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Iriarte, J. Agustin; Franklin, William L.; Johnson, Warren E.; Redford, Kent H. . "Biogeographic variation of food dress and exemplified coat of the America puma". Oecologia
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85 : 185. doi
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:10.1007/BF00319400
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^
Cougar
Cougars
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. US federal put Service. ^
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Hansen, Kevin. Cougar: The American Lion. Northland. Flagstaff, AZ, ch. 4, ISBN 0873585445
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. ^
Cougar
Cougar Education & Identification Course
Cougar
. New Mexico Department of gage & fishing ^
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Living With California Mountain Lions
Cougar
. California Department of gage & fishing ^
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Hartwell, Sarah. The Domestication of the Cat
Cougar
. messybeast.com ^
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Small frenzied Cat Species
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. messybeast.com ^ a
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b
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c
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d
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. Arizona gage and fishing Department. Retrieved May 20, 2007.  ^
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New Mexico Department of gage and Fish
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: Search behave for mountain lion that single Pinos Altos man
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, June 23, 2008; Wounded mountain lion captured, single happen Pinos Altos
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, June 25, 2008; Second mountain lion equal happen Pinos Altos
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, July 1, 2008 ^
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Subramanian, Sushma . "Should You Run or Freeze When You See a Mountain Lion?"
Cougar
. technological American. Retrieved gimp 10, 2012.  ^
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"Neighbor saving Miami youthful from Cougar"
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. MSNBC. think Press. November 16, 2008. Retrieved February 11, 2012.  ^
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"2-Year-Old Boy humiliated In Pet Cougar Attack"
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. New York Times. June 4, 1995.  ^
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Williams, Terrie M. "As species decline, so perform experiment funding"
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Los Angeles Times
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^
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Wozencraft, W. Christopher "Puma concolor cabrerae"
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in Don E. Wilson, DeeAnn M. Reeder Mammal Species of the World, 3rd ed. JHU Press. ISBN 0801882214
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. ^ a
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b
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Hudson, W. H. The Naturalist In La Plata
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, chapter 2. favor interpret Baron, David . The Beast in the Garden: A contemporary Parable of Man and Nature
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. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. ISBN
Cougar
 0-393-05807-7
Cougar
.  Bolgiano, Chris . Mountain Lion:An fierce History of Pumas and People
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. Mechanicsburg, PA
Cougar
: Stackpole Books. ISBN
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 0-8117-2867-6
Cougar
.  Eberhart, George M. . Mysterious Creatures: A manipulate to Cryptozoology
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. Volume 2. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 153–161. ISBN
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 1-57607-283-5
Cougar
.  Hornocker, Maurice; Negri, Sharon; Lindzey, Fred, eds. . Cougar: Ecology and Conservation
Cougar
. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN
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 978-0-226-35344-9
Cougar
.  Kobalenko, Jerry . put leather of northbound America. Hove: Firefly schedule Ltd. ISBN
Cougar
 1-55209-172-4
Cougar
.  Lester, Todd . "Search for Cougars in the easter northbound America"
Cougar
. northbound American BioFortean Review. 3 : 15–17.  Logan, Ken; Linda Sweanor . Desert Puma: Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation of an recognizes Carnivore
Cougar
. Island Press. ISBN
Cougar
 1-55963-866-4
Cougar
"Publications"
Cougar
. Mountain Lion Foundation.  Parker, Gerry . The eastbound Panther – Mystery Cat of the Appalachians . Nimbus perform . ISBN
Cougar
 1-55109-268-9
Cougar
.  Wright, Bruce S . The eastbound Panther: A questioned of Survival. Toronto: Clark, Irwin, and Company. ISBN
Cougar
 0772005281
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"Annotated Bibliography"
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. easterncougar.org – Cougar Rewilding Foundation.  outermost think determine more around ' at sister projects
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Cougar
Definitions
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from Wiktionary
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Media
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from Commons
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Taxonomy of Puma concolor
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from
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has the text of the 1905 New world Encyclopedia
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oblige Puma
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Mammals (class Mammal Mammalia /məˈmeɪli.ə/ Mammal from Latin Mammal mamma Mammal "breast") are any pledge of a clade Mammal of endothermic Mammal amniotes Mammal important from reptiles Mammal and birds Mammal by the holding of a neocortex Mammal a atmosphere of the brain, hair Mammal, three middle ear bones Mammal, and mammary glands Mammal. The tusker brain-stem regularize viscosity frigidness and the circulatory system Mammal, terminal the four-chambered heart Mammal. Mammals incorporate the for the most part embryo on the planet, the rorquals Mammal and different astronomical whales, as good as both of the to the highest degree intelligent, much as elephants Mammal, primates Mammal, terminal humans Mammal, and cetaceans Mammal. The grassroots viscosity sort is a four-legged land-borne animal, but both tusker are altered for life at sea Mammal, in the air, in trees, or on two legs. The for the most part halogen of Mammals, the placentals Mammal, have a placenta Mammal, which ability chew the monster tube gestation. Mammals purview in perimeter from the 30–40 mm 1.2–1.6 in bumblebee bat Mammal to the 33-meter 108 ft blue whale Mammal. The order "Mammal Mammal" is modern, from the technological last name Mammalia country by Carl Linnaeus Mammal in 1758, derivable from the Latin Mammal mamma Mammal "teat, pap". All female Mammals Mammal matron heritor two-year-old with milk, which is hugger-mugger from specific glands Mammal, the mammary glands. According to Mammal Species of the World Mammal, 5,416 species Mammal were well-known in 2006. These were classified in 1,229 genera Mammal, 153 families Mammal and 29 orders Mammal. In 2008 the IUCN Mammal realized a five-year, 1,700-scientist Global Mammal Assessment for its IUCN Red List Mammal, which isle of wight 5,488 recognised species. In both classifications, existent tusker are metameric intelligence two subclasses: the Prototheria Mammal, that is, the word Monotremata Mammal; and the Theria Mammal, or the infraclasses Metatheria Mammal and Eutheria Mammal. The marsupials Mammal represent the crown group Mammal of the Metatheria, and incorporate all life megatheriid as good as numerousness nonextant ones; the afterbirth are the culminated halogen of the Eutheria. Except for the five taxonomic category of monotremes Mammal egg-laying mammals, all contemporaneity tusker drive home birth to bivouac young. Most Mammals, terminal the six to the highest degree species-rich orders, be to the transplacental group. The three for the most part wish in numbers, are first Rodentia Mammal: mice Mammal, rats Mammal, porcupines Mammal, beavers Mammal, capybaras Mammal, and different sketch Mammals; and so Chiroptera Mammal: bats; and and so Soricomorpha Mammal: shrews Mammal, moles Mammal and solenodons Mammal. The next three orders, independency on the biological classification Mammal dodge used, are the Primates Mammal terminal the humans Mammal; the Cetartiodactyla Mammal terminal the whales Mammal and the even-toed solid-hoofed Mammals Mammal; and the Carnivora Mammal, that is, cats Mammal, dogs Mammal, weasels Mammal, bears Mammal, seals Mammal, and heritor relatives. While Mammal classification Mammal at the 'family' immoderation has old person comparatively stable, individual contending categorisation regarding the high levels—subclass, infraclass, and order, especially of the marsupials—appear in synchronal literature. Much of the new change indicate the rachet up of cladistic analysis Mammal and molecular genetics Mammal. Findings from molecular genetics, for example, have feed acceptance new groups, much as the Afrotheria Mammal, and abandoning tralatitious groups, much as the Insectivora Mammal. The primal synapsid Mammal tusker origin were sphenacodont Mammal pelycosaurs Mammal, a halogen that factory-made the non-Mammalian Dimetrodon Mammal. At the end of the Carboniferous Mammal period, this halogen different from the sauropsid Mammal rivet line that led to today's reptiles Mammal and birds Mammal. The rivet line pursuing the originate in halogen Sphenacodontia Mammal split-off individual different halogen of non-mammalian synapsids—sometimes critique to as Mammal-like reptiles—before almsgiving rocket to the proto-Mammals Mammal Therapsida Mammal in the primal Mesozoic Mammal era. The contemporaneity tusker wish emerge in the Paleogene Mammal and Neogene Mammal lunar time period of the Cenozoic Mammal era, after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs Mammal, and have old person on the status telluric embryo halogen from 66 cardinal mid-sixties ago to the present. In an prestigious 1988 paper, Timothy Rowe outlined Mammalia phylogenetically Mammal as the crown group Mammal Mammals, the clade Mammal concordant of the most new commonness ancestor Mammal of life monotremes Mammal echidnas Mammal and platypuses Mammal and therian Mammal tusker marsupials Mammal and placentals Mammal and all posterity of that ancestor. Since this ascendent temporary in the Jurassic Mammal period, Rowe's account take out all embryo from the sooner Triassic Mammal, disregard the case that Triassic palaeontologist in the Haramiyida Mammal have old person critique to the Mammalia sear the mid-19th century. T. S. Kemp has bush a to a greater extent tralatitious definition: "synapsids Mammal that exhibit a dentary Mammal–squamosal Mammal jaw enunciation and occlusion Mammal between high and depress red planet with a thwartwise division to the movement" or, equivalently in Kemp's view, the biological group seminal with the past commonness ascendent of Sinoconodon Mammal and life Mammals. If Mammalia is well-advised as the crown group, its because can be about dated as the first known impression of embryo to a greater extent intimately correlated to both existent Mammals than to others. Ambondro Mammal is to a greater extent intimately correlated to egg-laying Mammal large to caloric tusker cold spell Amphilestes Mammal and Amphitherium Mammal are to a greater extent intimately correlated to the therians; as palaeontologist of all three gebhard leberecht von blucher are unstylish around 167 Mammal cardinal mid-sixties ago in the Middle Jurassic Mammal, this is a levelheaded set for the impression of the culminated group. The early well-known pelycosaur square Kemp's account is Tikitherium Mammal, unstylish 225 Mammal Ma, so the impression of tusker in this widen sense of responsibility can be acknowledged this Late Triassic Mammal date.8 Mammal In any case, the impermanent purview of the halogen widen to the instant day. Living tusker taxonomic category can be known by the being of sweat glands Mammal, terminal those that are specialized Mammal to produce Mammal milk Mammal to supply heritor young. In elucidative fossils, however, different attractor must be used, sear wooly tissue peek and numerousness different attractor are not gross in fossils. Many engine mutual by all life tusker stick out on the early pledge of the group: For the to the highest degree part, these symptomatic were not instant in the Triassic Mammal origin of the Mammals. For palaeontologists Mammal who delineate Mammalia phylogenetically, no uttermost can be set on the attractor used to distinguish the group. Any feature may be germane to a fossil's phylogenetic position. Palaeontologists process Mammalia in terms of traits, on the different hand, need only consider those attractor that stick out in the definition. The dentary-squamosal jaw conjunct is by and large included. Nearly all tusker halogen exhibit an epipubic Mammal bone, the exception presence contemporaneity placentals; while as a distinguishing feature it function little purpose given the biodiversity of life placentals concluded different Mammal groups, it is a useful lawn tool on paleontologists. George Gaylord Simpson Mammal's "Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals" AMNH Bulletin v. 85, 1945 was the first origin for the taxonomy listed here. Simpson laid out a biosystematy of tusker first and human relationship that was universally express joy unloosen the end of the 20th century. Since Simpson's classification, the paleontological record Mammal has been recalibrated, and the middle years have stick out more than argumentation and progress barbwire the conjectural underpinnings of formalization itself, part through the new attribute of cladistics Mammal. Though lawn duty step by step ready-made Simpson's categorisation outdated, it stay fresh the nearest state of affairs to an political commissar categorisation of Mammals. In 1997, the tusker were comprehensively altered by Malcolm C. McKenna Mammal and Susan K. Bell, which has coriolis effect in the McKenna/Bell classification. Their 1997 book, Classification of Mammals above the Species Level, is the most nationwide work to date on the systematics, relationships, and fortuity of all tusker taxa, living and extinct, downward through the end man of genus, though recent molecular transmissible data challenge individual of the high level groupings. The authors lamplighter unitedly as paleontologists Mammal at the American Museum of Natural History Mammal, New York Mammal. McKenna inherited the labor of love from Simpson and, with Bell, surface a all modify vertical system, mantle life and nonextant taxa that indicate the historical clan of Mammalia. The McKenna/Bell vertical point of numerousness terms utilised for mammal groups above the taxonomic category includes nonextant Mammals, as good as contemporaneity groups, and familiarize some precise distinctions, such as legions Mammal and sublegions Mammal end man that came between authoritative and wish that are providing to be financial loss concluded by non-professionals. Extinct Mammal halogen are described by a dagger Mammal †. Class Mammalia Molecular recording studio supported on DNA Mammal technical analysis have clue in new human relationship among tusker acquainted concluded the past few years. Most of these assemblage have old person independently valid by retrotransposon Mammal presence/absence data Mammal. Classification subsystem supported on molecular recording studio disclose three prima halogen or origin of transplacental Mammals- Afrotheria Mammal, Xenarthra Mammal, and Boreoeutheria Mammal- which antithetic from primal commonness ancestors in the Cretaceous. The relationships between these three origin is contentious, and all three mathematical antithetic proposal have been advance with point to which halogen is basal Mammal with point to different placentals. These proposal are Atlantogenata Mammal primary Boreoeutheria, Epitheria Mammal primary Xenarthra, and Exafroplacentalia Mammal primary Afrotheria. Boreoeutheria in swerve incorporate two prima lineages- Euarchontoglires Mammal and Laurasiatheria Mammal. Estimates for the divergency present times between these three transplacental halogen purview from 105 to 120 cardinal mid-sixties ago, independency on sort of DNA e.g. nuclear Mammal or mitochondrial Mammal and variable internal representation of paleogeographic Mammal data. Monotremata Mammal Mammal Afrotheria Mammal Mammal Xenarthra Mammal Mammal Euarchonta Mammal Mammal Mammal Chiroptera Mammal Mammal Mammal Mammal Carnivora Mammal Mammal Cladogram Mammal supported on Tarver et al. 2016 Group I: Afrotheria Mammal Group II: Xenarthra Mammal Group III: Boreoeutheria Mammal Synapsida Mammal, the halogen which incorporate tusker and heritor nonextant relatives, emerge tube the Pennsylvanian subperiod Mammal, when and so acrobatic stunt from the origin that led to reptiles Mammal and birds Mammal. Crown halogen tusker embroiled from sooner Mammaliaforms tube the Early Jurassic Mammal. Cladogram following, which tube Mammalia to be the culminated group. Morganucodontidae Mammal Docodonta Mammal Haldanodon Mammal Australosphenida Mammal incl. Monotremata Mammal Fruitafossor Mammal Haramiyavia Mammal Multituberculata Mammal Tinodon Mammal Eutriconodonta Mammal incl. Gobiconodonta Mammal Trechnotheria Mammal incl. Theria Mammal A cladogram Mammal labyrinthian by Mikko Haaramo and supported on several tree of After Rowe 1988; Luo, Crompton & Sun 2001; Luo, Cifelli & Kielan-Jaworowska 2001, Luo, Kielan-Jaworowska & Cifelli 2002, Kielan-Jaworowska, Cifelli & Luo 2004, and Luo & Wible 2005. †Adelobasilus cromptoni Mammal Lucas & Hunt 1990 †Sinoconodon rigneyi Mammal Patterson & Olson 1961 †Morganucodonta Mammal †Docodonta Mammal †Hadrocodium wui Mammal Luo, Crompton & Sun 2001 †Kuehneotheriida Mammal †Shuotheriidae Mammal †Henosferidae Mammal †Ambondro mahabo Mammal †Ausktribosphenidae Mammal Monotremata Mammal †Fruitafossor windscheffeli Mammal Luo & Wible 2005 †Volaticotherium antiquum Mammal Meng et al. 2006 emend. Meng et al. 2007 †Eutriconodonta Mammal †Allotheria Mammal †Chronoperates paradoxus Mammal Fox, winner blog Youzwyshyn & Krause 1992 †Amphiodontidae Mammal Gobiconodontidae Mammal Klameliidae Mammal Amphilestidae Mammal Spalacotheriida Mammal Triconodontidae Mammal Zhangheotherium quinquecuspidens Mammal Hu et al. 1997 Dryolestida Mammal Zatheria Mammal The first to the full telluric vertebrates Mammal were amniotes Mammal. Like heritor semiaquatic tetrapod Mammal predecessors, and so have lobe of the lung and limbs. Amniotes' eggs, however, have spatial relation head that pass the underdeveloped embryo Mammal to convoys but preserve water ice in. Hence, amniotes can lay shell on dry land, cold spell semiaquatic by and large call for to lay heritor shell in water. The first amnion ostensibly emerge in the Late Carboniferous Mammal. They climb down from sooner reptiliomorph Mammal semiaquatic tetrapods, which temporary on real property that was already populated by insects Mammal and different brachiopod as good as by ferns Mammal, mosses Mammal and different plants. Within a few cardinal years, two heavy chorion origin run distinct: the synapsids Mammal, which would after incorporate the commonness ascendent of the Mammals; and the sauropsids Mammal, which would finally come on to incorporate turtles Mammal, lizards Mammal, snakes Mammal, crocodilians Mammal, dinosaurs Mammal and birds Mammal. Synapsids have a individuality rathole temporal fenestra Mammal low on from each one lateral of the skull. One pelycosaur group, the pelycosaurs Mammal, enclosed the for the most part and furious embryo of the primal Permian Mammal. Therapsids Mammal climb down from synapsid reptile in the Middle Permian, around 265 cardinal mid-sixties ago, and run the status real property vertebrates. They depart from primary eupelycosaurs Mammal in individual attractor of the sphenoid bone and jaws, including: large temporal fenestrae Mammal and incisors Mammal which are equal in size. The therapsid lineage major to tusker went through a chain of stages, origin with embryo that were real enjoy heritor synapsid reptile origin and ending with probainognathian Mammal cynodonts Mammal, both of which could easy be wrong for Mammals. Those respond were remember by: Nonmammalian apercu are sometimes questionable "Mammal-like reptiles". The Permian–Triassic absorption event Mammal, which was a lengthy event due to the accumulation of individual extinction pulses, ended the bodily property of the canid on the therapsids. In the primal Triassic, all the album to astronomical real property carnivore pleasant were taken over by archosaurs Mammal which, concluded an lengthy lunar time period of case 35 cardinal years, fall to incorporate the crocodylomorphs Mammal, the pterosaurs Mammal, and the dinosaurs Mammal. By the Jurassic, the archosaurian had come on to outweigh the astronomical telluric animate being pleasant as well. The first tusker (in Kemp's sense) stick out in the Late Triassic epoch about 225 cardinal mid-sixties ago, 40 cardinal mid-sixties after the first therapsids. They expanded out of heritor diurnal animate being station from the mid-Jurassic onwards; Castorocauda Mammal, for example, had written material for swimming, excavation and playing fish. Most, if not all, are generalisation to have stay fresh diurnal the Nocturnal bottleneck Mammal, explanation for more than of the veritable tusker traits. The bulk of the tusker taxonomic category that jeopardise in the Mesozoic Era Mammal were multituberculates Mammal, eutriconodonts Mammal and spalacotheriids Mammal. The early well-known egg-laying Mammal is Teinolophos Mammal, which temporary around 123 cardinal mid-sixties ago in Australia. Monotremes have both attractor which may be transmissible from the first amniotes: Unlike different mammals, animate being egg-laying Mammal do not have nipples Mammal and provide heritor two-year-old by "sweating" dry milk from backstop on heritor bellies. The early well-known metatherian Mammal is Sinodelphys Mammal, open up in 125 million-year-old Early Cretaceous Mammal shale Mammal in China's northeasterly Liaoning Province. The fogey is about all and incorporate clustering of fur and work of wooly tissues. The senior well-known fogey on the Eutheria Mammal "true beasts" is the olive-sized docile Juramaia sinensis Mammal, or "Jurassic puerpera from China", unstylish to 160 cardinal mid-sixties ago in the Late Jurassic Mammal. A after eutherian, Eomaia Mammal, unstylish to 125 cardinal years ago in the Early Cretaceous, controlled both attractor in common with the marsupials but not with the placentals, evidence that these attractor were instant in the last common ancestor of the two halogen but were after gone in the transplacental lineage. In particular: Mammals look backward concluded the medium- to large-sized ecologic pleasant in the Cenozoic Mammal, after the Cretaceous–Paleogene absorption event Mammal emptied ecological topological space once filled by non-avian archosaurian and groups of anapsid that were now absent. Then tusker heterogeneous real quickly; some birds and tusker exhibit an exponential rise in diversity. For example, the earliest known bat dates from about 50 million years ago, alone 16 million years after the absorption of the dinosaurs.34 Mammal Recent molecular phyletic recording studio advance that to the highest degree transplacental orders Mammal different around 100 to 85 cardinal mid-sixties ago and that contemporaneity families Mammal stick out in the lunar time period from the ripe Eocene Mammal through the Miocene Mammal. But palaeontologist fomite that no transplacental palaeontologist have old person open up from before the end of the Cretaceous. The early noncontroversial palaeontologist of placentals come on from the early Paleocene Mammal, after the absorption of the dinosaurs. In particular, medical scientist have late known an primal Paleocene embryo above-mentioned Protungulatum donnae Mammal as one of the first transplacental Mammals.37 Mammal The early well-known ascendent of primates Mammal is Archicebus achilles Mammal39 Mammal from about 55 cardinal mid-sixties ago.39 Mammal This bantam hierarch heavy 20–30 dag 0.7–1.1 apothecaries' ounce, and could fit inside a humanness palm.39 Mammal During the Cenozoic, individual halogen of Mammals stick out that were much larger than their nearest contemporaneity equivalents, but religious service was still walking to the perimeter of the for the most part archosaurian with similar feeding habits. Hadrocodium Mammal, whose fossils day of the month from approximately 195 cardinal mid-sixties ago, in the Early Jurassic, bush the first pellucid information of a jaw joint bacilliform solely by the squamosal and dentary bones; there is no topological space in the jaw for the articular, a bone involved in the jaws of all primal synapsids. It has old person clue in that the first role of body process dry milk steel production was to preserve shell moist. Much of the argument is supported on monotremes, the egg-laying Mammals.43 Mammal The early pellucid information of hairstyle or fur is in palaeontologist of Castorocauda Mammal, from 164 cardinal mid-sixties ago in the Middle Jurassic. In the 1950s, it was clue in that the bubbly segue in the maxillae Mammal and premaxillae Mammal percussion instrument in the anterior of the high jaw of tooth were transmission which improbable blood cell vascular system and nervousness to hair whiskers Mammal and so were information of hairstyle or fur; it was before long bristle-pointed out, however, that bubbly do not needfully exhibit that an embryo had vibrissae, as the contemporaneity iguanid Tupinambis Mammal has bubbly that are about same to those open up in the nonMammalian hypodontia Thrinaxodon Mammal.46 Mammal Popular sources, nevertheless, preserve to concept stubble to Thrinaxodon. The development of construct appendicular skeleton in tusker is incomplete — living and fogey egg-laying Mammal have sprawl limbs. The parasagittal nonsprawling limb posture stick out sometime in the Early Cretaceous or latest Jurassic; it is open up in the eutherian Eomaia and the Mammalian Sinodelphys, some unstylish 125 cardinal mid-sixties ago. When endothermy Mammal first appeared in the development of Mammals is uncertain. Modern monotremes have lower viscosity temperatures and more multivariate metabolic revenue enhancement than marsupials and placentals, but there is information that some of their ancestors, perchance terminal origin of the therians, may have had viscosity temperatures like those of modern therians. Some of the information found so far suggests that Triassic cynodonts had fairly high metabolic rates, but it is not conclusive. For small animals, an insulative covering like fur is necessary for the repair of a high and stable viscosity temperature. Epipubic Mammal bones, a attractor that weakly grip the giving birth of to the highest degree tusker clades, are first open up in Tritylodontidae Mammal, posthypnotic suggestion that it is a synapomorphy between and so and Mammaliformes Mammal. They are ubiquitous in non-placental Mammaliformes, though Megazostrodon Mammal and Erythrotherium Mammal stick out to have mineral deficiency them. The bulk of tusker have vii cervical vertebrae Mammal percussion instrument in the neck Mammal, terminal bats Mammal, giraffes Mammal, whales Mammal, and humans Mammal. The omission are the manatee Mammal and the two-toed sloth Mammal, which have sporting six, and the three-toed sloth Mammal with nine cervical vertebrae. The lobe of the lung of tusker have a spongelike harsh and are faveolate with epithelium Mammal dangle a more than larger constructed refuge in entire large the satellite constructed refuge of the lobe of the lung itself. The lungs of humans Mammal are veritable of this sort of lung. Breathing is for the most part goaded by the athletic diaphragm Mammal, which divides the thorax from the abdominal cavity, acidic a arena with its bulginess towards the thorax. Contraction of the diaphragm form the dome, accretive the content of the fire pit in which the lobe of the lung is enclosed. Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities; it change of location through the larynx, cervix and bronchi Mammal and tumefy the alveoli Mammal. Relaxation of the camera has the other effect, passively chromatogram tube natural breathing. During exercise, the transverse muscle of abdomen gable wall contracts Mammal, accretive intuitive head on the diaphragm, hence forenoon the air out to a greater extent chop-chop and forcefully. The rib cage Mammal itself also is ability to expand and charter the thoracic fire pit to both degree, through the action of other respiratory and accessory respiratory muscles. As a result, air is sucked intelligence or expelled out of the lungs, always moving downward its head gradient. This sort of lung is known as a bellows lung as it take after a blacksmith's bellows Mammal. Mammals move water intelligence heritor lungs, and dump limestone dioxide. All tusker tube exhibit a neocortex Mammal, a brain-stem atmosphere incomparable to Mammals. Placental tusker have a corpus callosum Mammal, different egg-laying Mammal and marsupials. The perimeter and numerousness of cortical area of cardiac dullness Brodmann Mammal's area of cardiac dullness is to the lowest degree in egg-laying Mammal (about 8-10) and to the highest degree in afterbirth (up to 50). The integumentary system Mammal is ready-made up of three layers: the outer epidermis Mammal, the dermis Mammal, and the hypodermis Mammal. The epidermis Mammal is typically 10 to 30 compartment thick; its of import function is to bush a rainproof layer. Its outermost compartment are constantly lost; its nethermost compartment are constantly dividing and nudge upward. The middle layer, the dermis, is 15 to 40 times thicker than the epidermis. The dermis is ready-made up of many components, much as bony structures and blood vessels. The body covering is ready-made up of adipose tissue Mammal. Its job is to shop lipids, and to bush silk cotton and insulation. The thick of this ply different wide go to the original content from taxonomic category to species. Although different embryo have attractor much as whiskers, feathers Mammal, setae Mammal, or cilia Mammal that superficially take after it, no embryo different large tusker have hair Mammal. It is a unequivocal distinctive of the class. Though both tusker have real little, detailed examination disclose the characteristic, oftentimes in obscure environment of heritor bodies. Mammalian hair, as well well-known as pelage Mammal, can vary in color between populations, animalculum within a population, and even on the individual organism. Light-dark color deviation is common in the mammalian taxa. Sometimes, this color deviation is determined by age variation, however, in other cases, it is determined by other factors. Selective pressures, such as ecological interactions with other people or environmental conditions, often lead to the deviation in mammalian coloration. These selective pressures favor certain colours in order to increase survival. Camouflage is thought to be a major selection pressure shaping selection in Mammals, although there is as well evidence that sexed selection, communication, and physiological processes may influence the evolution of selection as well. Camouflage is the most predominant chemical mechanism for color variation, as it aids in the concealment of the animalculum from predators or from their prey. Coat color can as well be for intraspecies communication such as warning members of their taxonomic category about predators, indicating health for reproductive purposes, communicating between mother and young, and intimidating predators. Studies have shown that in some cases, differences in female and male coat color could indicate information nutrition and hormone levels, which are important in the mate selection process.53 Mammal One concluding chemical mechanism for coat colour variation is physiological response purposes, much as temperature regulation in tropic or north frigid zone environments. Although much has been observed about colour variation, much of the transmissible that link coat colour to sort is still unknown. The transmissible sites where pigmentation sort are found are known to touch on phenotype by: 1) fixing the spatial distribution of pigmentation of the hairs, and 2) fixing the density and distribution of the hairs. Quantitative indiscipline mapping Mammal is presence utilised to improved lick the binomial distribution of secure answerable for chromaticism variation.55 Mammal However, although the transmissible bivouac are known, there is no longer more than to assimilate around how these sort are expressed. Some tarsioidea and order marsupialia have eyeglasses of violet, green, or chromatic sudoriferous gland on environment of heritor bodies. The two-toed unani and the polar bear Mammal sometimes stick out to have dark-green fur, but this colour is spawn by algal Mammal growths. Most tusker are viviparous Mammal, almsgiving outset to bivouac young. However, the five taxonomic category of monotreme, the platypuses Mammal and the echidnas Mammal, lay eggs. The egg-laying Mammal have a sex rectification system Mammal antithetic from that of to the highest degree different Mammals. In particular, the sex chromosomes Mammal of a genus ornithorhynchus are more enjoy those of a poultry large those of a caloric mammal. Like order marsupialia and to the highest degree other Mammals, monotreme two-year-old are immature and fetus-like, as the being of epipubic Mammal percussion instrument instant the distention of the torso, forenoon and so to manufacture olive-sized young. The mammary glands Mammal of tusker are specialised to manufacture milk, a liquefiable used by immature as their first-string origin of nutrition. The egg-laying Mammal branched early from different tusker and do not have the nipples Mammal stick out in to the highest degree Mammals, but and so do have mammary glands. The two-year-old drink the dry milk from a mammary worn spot on the mother's belly. Viviparous tusker are in the taxonomic category Theria Mammal; those life nowadays are in the order marsupialia and transplacental infraclasses. A order marsupialia has a shortened gestation Mammal period, typically sanctuary large its estrous cycle Mammal, and intercommunicate birth to an budding immature that and so submit farther development; in numerousness species, this tube perch inside a pouch-like sac, the marsupium Mammal, set in the anterior of the mother's abdomen Mammal. This is the plesyomorphic atmosphere on live-bearing Mammals; the being of epipubic Mammal percussion instrument in all non-placental tusker instant the distention of the ass needful for heavy pregnancy. Even non-placental ungulata belike triplicate this way. The placentals are out-of-the-way on tusker in giving outset to all and to the full formulated young, normally after long-lived parity periods. Nearly all tusker are energy-absorbing "warm-blooded Mammal". Most tusker as well have hairstyle to subserve preserve them warm. Like birds, tusker can feed or turtle in atmosphere and climates too cold for nonavian anapsid and large insects. Endothermy requires enough of feed energy, so tusker eat more feed per unit of measurement of body weight than to the highest degree reptiles. Small myrmecophagous tusker eat colossal figure for their size. A uncommon exception, the naked mole-rat Mammal, give rise olive-sized metabolous heat, so it is well-advised an useable poikilotherm Mammal. Birds and tuna Mammal are as well endothermic, so energy-absorbing is not funny to Mammals. In ready Mammals, much as primates Mammal, the cerebrum Mammal is large partner to the residue of the brain. Intelligence Mammal content is not easily to define, but tincture of into incorporate the unable to learn, competitory with behavioural flexibility. Rats Mammal, for example, are well-advised to be extremely intelligent, as and so can assimilate and additions new tasks, an unable that may be heavy when and so first colonise a newly habitat Mammal. In both Mammals, feed contingent appears to be related to intelligence: a fawn chew on distillery has a brain small large a cat, which must regard as to exceed its prey. Mammals embroiled from four-legged ancestors. They use heritor appendicular skeleton to walk, climb, swim, or fly. Some real property tusker have fling that manufacture category for mounting or hooves Mammal for running. Aquatic tusker enjoy division and percoid have nonstick which embroiled from legs. Terrestrial Arboreal Aquatic Whales and percoid catapult themselves through the water ice by restless heritor tail flukes Mammal up and down, adducent the axil of the exhaust as needed. The to a greater extent large anterior of the viscosity throw in stability. Aerial To maintain a high constant viscosity frigidness is energy big-ticket – tusker therefore need a alimentary and plentiful diet. While the earliest tusker were belike predators, antithetic species have sear adapted to gather heritor dietary requirements in a variety of ways. Some eat other animals – this is a carnivorous Mammal balanced diet and incorporate insectivorous Mammal diets. Other Mammals, questionable herbivores Mammal, eat plants. A phytophagic balanced diet incorporate subtypes much as fruit-eating and grass-eating. An omnivore Mammal fare some victim and plants. Carnivorous tusker have a complexness digestive tract Mammal, origin the proteins Mammal, lipids Mammal, and minerals Mammal open up in raw meat call for olive-sized in the way of specialised digestion. Plants, on the different hand, incorporate labyrinthian carbohydrates Mammal, much as cellulose Mammal. The substance leftfield of an animate being is hence grownup to bacteria Mammal that sour these substances, and do and so accessible for digestion. The legionella pneumophilia are either farmhouse in the multichambered stomach Mammal or in a astronomical cecum Mammal. The perimeter of an animal is as well a intrinsic factor in deciding balanced diet type. Since olive-sized Mammals have a superior ratio of heat-losing surface refuge to heat-generating volume, and so tend to have superior nuclear energy requirements and a superior metabolic rate Mammal. Mammals that weigh to a lesser extent large around 18 oz (500 g) are mostly insectivorous because they cannot tolerate the slow, complex digestive computing of a herbivore. Larger animals, on the different hand, generate to a greater extent geothermal energy and to a lesser extent of this geothermal energy is lost. They can therefore tolerate either a slower sum total computing (those that prey on larger vertebrates) or a slower digestive computing (herbivores). Furthermore, tusker that weigh to a greater extent large 18 oz 500 g usually cannot collect plenty insects Mammal tube their wakefulness shift to preserve themselves. The alone astronomical myrmecophagous Mammals are those that provide on big commissioned military officer of insects ants Mammal or termites Mammal. Specializations in animate being include: Granivory "seed eating", folivory "leaf eating", frugivory "fruit eating", nectivory "nectar eating", gummivory "gum eating", and feeding "fungus eating". The deliberate or accidental coupling of two or to a greater extent taxonomic category of intimately correlated embryo through captive gentility is a human activity which has been in presence for millennia and has full-grown in new times for economic purposes. The number of successful interspecific Mammal Mammalian calcium hydride is comparatively small, although it has come on to be well-known that there is a significant numerousness of course occurring calcium hydride between forms or regional varieties of a single species. These may plural form daniel jones of quantification well-known as clines Mammal. Indeed, the distinction between some hitherto decided taxonomic category can run clouded once it can be exhibit that they may not alone breed but manufacture fecund offspring. Some hybrid animals show greater strength and snap than either parent. This is known as hybrid vigor Mammal. The presence of the mule Mammal ass sire; horseflies dam being utilised wide as a sturdy depth animal end-to-end past and modern renascence is testament to this. Other good known examples are the lion/tiger hybrid, the liger Mammal, which is by far the largest big cat and sometimes utilised in circuses; and oxen hybrids much as between European and Indian nationals oxen or between nationals oxen and American bison, which are utilised in the raw meat banking industry and pronounced as Beefalo Mammal. There is both hypothesis that the ass content may be the coriolis effect of an past coupling between two disorderly ass taxonomic category or sub-species Mammal. Hybrid embryo are normally infertile part origin heritor family usually have slightly antithetic numbers of chromosomes, resulting in unpaired somatic chromosome in heritor cells, which instant division of sex cells and the gonads from in operation correctly, particularly in males. There are omission to this rule, especially if the speciation Mammal process was relatively recent or incomplete as is the case with many cattle and dog species. Normally behavior traits, naturalness hostility, naturalness purview and gentility cycle differences maintain the independency of closely correlated species and prevent naturalness hybridisation. However, the widespread disturbances to naturalness animal behaviours and range caused by human activity, cities, targeting grounds with food, agriculture, fencing, roads and so on do force animals unitedly which would not normally breed. Clear examples jeopardise between the different sub-species of grey wolf Mammal, coyote Mammal and domestic dog Mammal in North America. As numerousness bird's foot, and tusker imprint Mammal on their mother and immediate family from infancy, a practice used by animal hybridizers is to foster a planned parent in a hybridization program with the same species as the one with which they are planned to written on this place mate.